Manchild in the promised land

First generation blacks in New York had the unique situation of being in the urban life for the first time, having come from slave work conditions on southern farms, they brought their experiences of living as slaves, they brought their religion and they brought hope that life in the city would be different, that life would be better in the promise land.   As we seen in Manchild in the Promised Land, life in New York is hard, harder than the south in new ways that blacks could not have prepared themselves for. Poverty, violence, and prejudice followed them where ever they went in America, including New York.   Black children growing up in this urban setting are like weeds growing between the cracks in the pavement—they are hearty, they do what they have to do to survive.   The streets are their playground, their school and hope is only in the luck one has that they won’t get busted.   How did this lifestyle develop?   A number of factors, namely poverty and prejudice caused other problems to develop such as violence, child abuse, drugs, prostitution etc. Child Abuse One social ill that often stems from poverty is child abuse.   In the book child abuse is seen in homes such as Claude’s friend Bucky whose mother, who is on welfare, is in such a state of despair that she chooses her drink and gambling over feeding her own four children.   These children liked living in the child welfare house because at least there they had three meals a day and a place to sleep.   Of his friend Claude says, â€Å"Bucky was the only kid I knew who could stay out all night long and not be missed† (p 32). This clearly instilled in these youth the struggle to survive at all costs whether it be violence or stealing.   School also became something that hardly seems worthwhile when a child could be out â€Å"catting† on the streets and come home with food, money, clothes or other items when school only meant that you would probably get in trouble for something and get beat when you got home.   Claude doesn’t seem to realize the benefits of going to school, learning to read etc. until almost his high school years when the prison warden encourages him and believes that he could do well. Just as a master abused the slave, many a black parent abused their children under the pretense of â€Å"spare the rod and spoil the child,† raising them up with violence in their hearts from the start.   Black children in Harlem were to respect their parents and do what they were told or pay the cost. For punishment for his various crimes and school skipping, Claude is beaten progressively more seriously until his father resorts to hitting him with his fists because it seems that no matter what punishment Claude is given, he continues to get into trouble and his father is frustrated to the point of serious violence.   So from the age of six years old, violence is instilled in Claude as a means for upholding authority and for punishing wrong doing but interestingly enough, violence was not enough to make Claude respect his father and the day his father used his fists on Claude seems to be the day that Claude’s relationship with his father was severed. Violence Violence is a part of survival in Harlem.   One must defend their manhood, their reputation or fear losing important alliances with other men who help make street life livable.   In prison one must protect their rank of power, which is more clear cut than on the street. Examples of violence in the book include when Claude disowns his friend for allowing himself to be beat up by white men—to Harlem street youth this was the most disrespectful thing one could do to oneself. Big Bill, a man in Claude’s neighborhood, encouraged the kids to fight because he knew they needed to learn how to defend themselves on those hard streets.   Big Bill was preparing them for life, as he saw it.   In order to survive, Claude learned, you had to be a â€Å"bad nigger,† which meant that you had to be willing to do anything; you had to be willing to die.   One time when Claude was beat up over a quarter he said, â€Å"It wasn’t the value of money†¦ It was just that these things symbolized a man’s manhood or principles† (p. 256). Violence is used to keep racial segregation—Claude is raised being told that if he were to ever sleep with a white woman he would be lynched.   The police use violence to control violence.   Violence is also used by the everyday inhabitants of Harlem to protect themselves against the people who live the street life.   Claude caught a bullet in the stomach from a neighbor who was simply trying to keep their sheets from being stolen.   One man’s head was cracked open by a landlord for peeing in the hallway of his building.     Ã‚  The cycle of wrong doing seems to be perpetuated by violence; it cuts the psyche and makes a person grow callous to what has to be done to protect oneself and one’s belongings in Harlem or any poor urban ghetto. Role of Women Black women in Harlem are the lowest on the totem pole so to speak and are treated as if they were objects to own or use.   Women are considered to only exist to please men and men like Johnny, a pimp, treat women very badly in order to get what they want.   Claude’s own mother is helpless to control her son, simply ringing her hands and saying, â€Å"Boy, why you so bad?† (p 27).   In the case of Sugar and Melvin, Sugar must step up when her man decides that he is not going to struggle to survive in hostile Harlem but simply give up—she must take on a more important role in the relationship and lead the household. Drugs Drugs are another result of urban poverty in Harlem.   Drugs are an escape, a chance to make a quick buck.   Claude also said that drugs became associated with manhood, â€Å"the young cats wanted to take drugs because they used to listen to the way the junkies talked, with a drag in their voice† (p 261).   Many a black man in Harlem got caught in the web of Heroine, thinking that they were in control and selling it, the drug took control of them.   Pimp, Claude’s little brother, was just such a character and Claude spent a lot of time trying to show his brother that this just wasn’t the way. Religion Religion in Harlem harks back to the spirituals of the South.   Charismatic church services were held in old stores, apartments or where ever there is space to be had. The preachers, such as Mrs. Rogers, a jackleg preacher, have no formal training but lead their family and peers in a sermon and loud prayer sessions. Claude was very skeptical of his experience in Mrs. Roger’s church and for years later he remembered church as a place where, â€Å" somebody lined up a lot of kitchen chairs in a few rows, a preacher did a lot of shouting about the Lord, people jumping up and down until they got knocked down by the spirit, and Mrs. Rogers put bowls of money on a kitchen table and kept pointing to it and asking from more† (p. 27).   Claude believes throughout the book that religion is just another distraction, like a drug, to take one’s mind away from the suffering of hard living. Black Muslims in Harlem represented a little different form of faith that dealt with the issues of the ghetto by turning the philosophy of prejudice around so that the black man was the superior race and the whites inferior and according to Floyd Saks, â€Å"The time has come for all back men to rise up, band together and do something for themselves† (p 319).   These Muslim’s encouraged blacks to â€Å"buy black† to better the black economy.   Although Claude recognizes the need for change in his community he quickly sees that Floyd’s faith is simply exchanging one hate for another. Role Models The only role models that urban youth in Harlem seemed to have were negative ones.   Those that worked hard did not make enough money to survive or live well.   Those that seemed to have enough money and to have control over their life were the â€Å"street heroes† or the men who were able to lie, cheat and steal their living.   Claude was influenced by friends his own age such as Danny, who taught him how to steal from cash registers and skip school or Johnny who taught him how to hustle on the street. Claude in turn became a â€Å"street hero† and influenced his little brother Pimp who then ended up becoming a drug user.   The influence of siblings was such that Pimp was expected to live up to his brother’s tough reputation so he had to be a â€Å"bad nigger† and he had to get in as much trouble as possible to catch up to his brother’s years of street experience.   Claude has to beat up an older boy for his sister Carole’s honor in order to preserve his own as well as hers. Claude finds a positive influence only in the â€Å"comforts† of the regimented prison where everything is clearly laid out with purpose.   Mr. Papanek and Mrs. Coen are the only two people in Claude’s life who positively influenced his actions and helped him to realize that he was going no where doing the same things that got him in trouble before and got other men in trouble before and after him. Papanek kept telling people that, â€Å"Claude Brown is going to be a real success† and as a result, Claude believed it and made it happen (p 167).   Doing something different had not occurred to Claude before this or to other youth like him because there just weren’t any successful young black men to be found. Reverend James was a positive role model in the Harlem community that Claude sought to help his brother Pimp get off drugs and to find a track into college.   Claude respected Reverend James because he was as intelligent as Mr. Papanek but he was black and he lived in Harlem with the rest of those struggling to survive and had found a way to survive outside of the mores of the street.   â€Å"Reverend James is a pretty hip guy for a minister,†Ã‚   Claude admitted to Pimp and it is the Reverend’s ability to be â€Å"hip† that made him capable of really making a difference in the lives of Harlem youth (p 390). The Ghetto Mentality Poverty, violence, crime and the lack of any hope or any positive role models caused a â€Å"ghetto mentality† to develop that made people have low aspirations and to focus on the appearance of things such as making sure to have fine clothes rather than planning ahead with finances for the future.   Success was seen only in the street heroes: pimps and successful criminals. Tilto, Danny and Mac are good examples of boys with no aspiration to ever do anything else but hustle and hope for a quick showy success.   When asked what he was going to do with his life Claude’s friend Mac says, â€Å"I don’t know man. I guess I’ll deal drugs† like every one else in the neighborhood was already doing (p 237).   This ghetto mentality was re-enforced by the fact that men with a criminal record after the age of sixteen were unable to find gainful employment or become a successful citizen in society so there was a sense of, â€Å"why try, I can’t do anything about it now.† This mentality is broken only by the influence of someone like Claude, who everyone respects on the street and who decided to get out of the lifestyle and to find something more fulfilling in life.   The likelihood of urban youth to come in contact with a Mr. Pancheck, like Claude did is less likely than for them to be impressed to change by someone like Claude.                              

How It Feels To Be Colored Me Essay

â€Å"A genius of the South, novelist, folklorist, anthropologist†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthose are the words that Alice Walker had inscribed on the tombstone of Zora Neale Hurston. In the essay How It Feels to Be Colored Me, Zora explores her own sense of identity through a series of striking metaphors. After realizing that she is of color, Hurston never really places a significant emphasis on the racial inequalities that exist in America. â€Å"At certain times I have no race, I am me.† Zora Neale Hurston did not have any separate feelings about being an American and colored. â€Å"But I am not tragically colored. There is no great sorrow dammed up in my soul, nor lurking behind my eyes. I do not mind at all.† She is saying that there is no shame in her color. Hurston did not want to conform to a race, to a color, she tried to be herself. She was not afraid to be different, she knew she was special. How It Feels to Be Colored Me, makes it clear that she wants to be recognized as an individual. In paragraph 7 she wrote â€Å"the operation was successful and the patient is doing well, thank you.† Hurston was referring this to slavery and how it did not bother her. That was something in her past and she is moving on from it. Hurston’s audience was guided towards young African American adults who feel the same way about race or color. In the first paragraph she says â€Å". . . except the fact that I am the only Negro in the United States. . .† Because this is one of the first sentences of this essay, it sets the tone for the whole piece. It shows that Hurston’s attitude towards herself is very positive. Many readers could feel the way she feels, wanting to get attention and being noticed. She wanted to be known for someone who was not just another colored person. Many people want to be noticed and not just by their race or skin color. Zora knew that she still stood out from everyone else, but in the end of it all, no one is really â€Å"different†. Zora Neale Hurston gets her purpose across by her use of language and sentence structure. â€Å"I remember the day I became colored.† This is the day that she realized what white people thought of her and anyone else who was colored. Hurston uses many metaphors in this piece to vividly describe the expressions of her self-realization. â€Å"I left Eatonville, the town of the oleanders, as Zora.† Hurston used the word oleanders instead of another flowe r to explain that on the outside they are beautiful, but inside very poisonous.

“Night” Point of View Essay

David Wicks1-15-12 Mr. ChesnoffEnglish 10H P. O. V #2 As the seemingly endless, grueling, painful run from camp to camp came to an end, we had to endure yet another horrible situation. Due to the excitement of arriving at our destination, we all packed into the barracks too quickly. People were being trampled and suffocated under the mad dash of the freezing bodies. I was one of the unlucky ones who had been pushed, shoved and fell and now was being crushed under the weight of the ice cold flesh.I surely would have been killed by the lack of air or under the immense amount of weight that was crushing my frail body. I stayed calm for a moment to collect my thoughts and then gathered up my strength to yell, ‘†You’re crushing me†¦ have mercy! ’ I thought, I’ve made it this far and I can’t die like this. Once more I mustered up the strength to exclaim, ‘you’re crushing me†¦ mercy, have mercy! ’†. To my surprise t he body right on top of me answered my cries of help. It was Elie, the boy I remembered from my original work camp, he was the one who received 25 lashings.What a surprise to meet him here! I was surprised and a little delighted that someone I knew had made it this far. I explained to him how I was tired, and how my feet were swollen and hurt me because of the ice cold stiff ground we were forced to run on. In addition I told him I was worried that the weight of the people would break my violin and that I needed to find a way out. I had hid my violin under all of my garments while I ran and wherever I went to keep it safe. This violin was the only link left that I had with the outside world.I needed to keep it safe at all costs. I managed to slip away from the cluster of bodies and found an empty part of the room where I pulled out my bow and brushed off my violin of all the dirt and snow. I took a moment to observe what the Germans had broken us down to. I can only describe it as l ifeless skeletons, who live only to see their next ration. The sight was too much for me to bear. I thought of the most moving and inspirational piece that I knew and I began to play parts of a Beethoven concerto. I knew my ultimate fate yet I continued to play.As things calmed down, I had noticed that my music had put many to sleep including Elie. I played for about ten minutes until I had finished my piece, that’s when the guards came for me. With club in hand I was held back as I watched my violin get smashed, crushed and turned to nothing. I had just witnessed my last true happiness, my last connection to the world outside these gates, outside these restraints. I opened death with open arms because I knew that though they could kill my body, they could never kill my legacy.

True Sale in Securitization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

True Sale in Securitization - Essay Example The power to sell the receivables by the creditor stems from the concept of securitization, which is a â€Å"contractual right of a creditor to sell the goods of the debtor and apply the proceeds thereof in or towards the satisfaction of the debt.†1 There are three types of securitization currently used in the market. First, it could be treated as a â€Å"true sale† which is characterized by a transfer of all rights over the receivables to the SPV by the originator. Second is the synthetic securitization where the originator does not sell the accounts receivables but enters into a derivative transaction. Third, are the whole business securitizations, which a form of secured financing, and not a sale of the accounts receivables from the originator to the SPV. Of the three types of treatment, the rue sale may prove to be the safer ground for the seller. There are two points of view in true sale transactions namely the originator’s perspective and that of the SPV. Since Bank A falls under the category of an originator, we will then the originator’s perspectives. As earlier discussed, securitization is aimed at raising funds. For the originator, it is also a method of extracting profit. However, extraction of profit must be done with caution as it has the tendency to run foul with regulations and accounting principles. Under the rules and guidelines of the Securitisation and Asset Transfers (SE) as embodied in the FSA’s Interim Prudential Sourcebook for Banks, extraction of profits may be effected in the following manners, namely (a) as administration fees.

Case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Case study - Essay Example That was the time when she realized that this bag can be popular product for people who loves innovative designing articles like cloths, umbrella, handbags, wallet, makeup bags, lamp shades etc. Clare, mother of Calypso also helped her with the business. Her first year turnover was ?180 000 and she became the London Business person of the year at the age of 22 (Burns, 2011). Calypso and her mother Clare chose to manufacture the bags from UK and use their house as the office. The reasons are: Working from home was advantageous cause their Calypso did not had to pay any rent for her office to anybody. Except that no extra electricity or internet bill there are flexible office time. She could able to work any time in a day and handle any matter whenever they arise without delay. And she got her mother’s help from home (Clippy London, 2013). She was worried that any big and established manufacturer in market can easily steal her idea or copy it so she had to make the sales fast an d regular, to do that she needed the supply unit and manufacturing unit to be close. If the supply unit is thousands of miles away somewhere in china and she had import everything from there it would took couple of valuable days. Instead of that if that if both the unit in UK the orders can be more quickly handled. And once the business start and run smoothly the payment terms for business chain will be regular and spontaneous and it will help the cash flow for her business. An online directory namely Kelly’s online directory (Kelly Search, n.d.) helped her to find out a manufacturer from UK (Smith, 2010). Calypso was a first timer in business field and she had no experience in that domain. Also her volume of business was not very big it was precisely 250 bags only. So for 250 bags going to foreign country to search supplier and renting a separate office would have been more fancy for her cause she was not sure the idea of transparent and graphics bag would hit in the market or not. Her initial customers were family, relatives, friends and those people who appreciated her idea earlier. The official launch of the product was on 2004 during Christmas Fair in Olympia’s Spirit (Stylist.co.uk, n.d.). These three were the main reason of choosing UK as the place of manufacturing for calypso for her fashionable see through bag with customised designs. During start ups and initial growth period manufacturing unit of Clippy was at UK, there were some advantages as well as some disadvantages also. Advantages can be: If supply and manufacturing unit are nearby then time cycle from order of raw materials –delivery of them –and making finished items and delivering them to market become fast and regular. Communication between various members in supply and delivery chain is become easy and effective. In that respective if we look at Clippy’s initial days (start up and initial growth) it was quite expectable for such an innovative product. It was an innovative product no such see through bags with pockets and photos of family and friends on it was available previously in any market. It was an experiment for her to launch it in small scale in UK market from where she also got couple of encouragements from various fashion lovers. So it was like a gamble for her. So it was better to choose her home market rather than foreign market for manufacturing (Department for Business Innovation and Skills, 2012). Calypso did not have any experience as a

Relationship between oil price rise and the recession in modern world Essay

Relationship between oil price rise and the recession in modern world economy - Essay Example This paper is one of the best examples of analysis of the quantitative relationship between oil prices and economic recession. Conceptual framework advocated by different economists were evaluated and three models for understanding the impact of oil price fluctuations were assessed. These models, despite differing approaches, converge to the same conclusions. For this study the AS/AD model has been chosen in preference to those developed by Mankiw and Blanchard and Sheen. The present situation of change in oil prices was assessed and there is an attempt in the paper to predict what the sharp increase in oil prices is likely to lead to for the major economies of the world. Increases in oil prices have been held responsible for recessions, periods of excessive inflation, reduced productivity and lower economic growth in the past. As the development rates of the world economy reach all time highs the recession that another oil price hike may cause will be difficult to control by traditional methods, since simultaneously interest rates are already very low and further tightening of money supply would yield very marginal results. While the demand for oil has risen, this is primarily due the push by emerging economies like China and India, the dependence of the economy on oil has reduced considerably with the strengthening of the IT and services sectors. It is concluded that the rise in oil prices will definitely result in an across the board change in prices and thus inflation rates will continue to be high.

Tourism research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Tourism research - Essay Example In the end, every tourism research has its own exceptional methodology, as defined by the supervisors and researchers overseeing the research. This report was conducted because of the turn down of visitors to regional parks. It seeks to obtain information that will enable park managers to improve park attractions and service quality. Since the relevant information obtained through visitor surveys can help assess the visitor’s behavior and their expectations of national parks, the supervisors and researchers decided to conduct a quantitative survey through a self completion questionnaire. The research review was centered mainly on visitors to regional parks. According to Balalia and Petrescu (2011), in order to motivate visitors to visit regional parks, park managers and supervisors had to understand the aspirations, needs and behaviors of the visitors. The research methodology also required interpretation and communication of the aims, park values and goals with the aim of improving visitor experiences and support. A questionnaire was developed with relevant questions posted to a sample of the visitor population. The survey asked questions on frequency, awareness and purpose in areas where potential issues exist. The questions about the participants themselves included gender, place of residence, age group as well as the highest level of education completed. Other questions included the main mode of transportation when visiting a regional park, frequency of visits, who accompanies the participants to the park as well as type of events that would attract them to the park. The questionnaire method was chosen because it is less expensive and the questions were few to answer hence, less time consuming. The answers that were obtained were analyzed carefully to be able to understand the information about visitors. The participants were requested to fill in the questionnaire during two weeks of 1st August to 14th August 2011. The sample of

Major Histocompatibility Complex Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Major Histocompatibility Complex - Essay Example The role of immune responses and polymorphism brings about changes to parasitic responses and individuals master immune responses against pathogenic responses. In this discussion features of the major histocompatibility complex are highlighted and the mechanisms and functions of the immune system are also discussed in terms of pathogenic reactions and the role of the MHC. The importance of genetic diversity, selective pressure and polymorphism would also be discussed to suggest evolutionary changes, genetic diversity in the population and the influence of MHC on social behavior. A description of the MHC or Major Histocompatibility Complex could suggest that MHC is a gene cluster. The MH complex consists of four million base pairs of DNA and contains 128 genes as well as 96 pseudogenes (non-functional gene remnants). The MHC is thus a multigene family, has a large cluster of genes encoding key receptor molecules that aids in the binding of foreign peptides to immune cells and this in turn leads to a successful immune response (Klein, 1986). The vertebrate immune system has the MHC as its core and it is a multigene family encoding receptor molecules that binds and recognizes foreign peptides for immune responses and immune cells. ... ent them to immune cells and trigger a sort of immune response and foreign proteins enter cells by infection, phagocytosis in antigen presenting cells and macrophages. Foreign proteins are comprised of small peptides and presented in MHC molecules and these proteins are transported to the cell surface and T cell population. When the peptide binds the T cells, immune responses are triggered (Klein, 1986). The MHC is the most important genetic cluster within a mammalian immune system and the immune system is described in terms of the Major Histocompatibility Complex. The MHC is composed of cell surface glycoproteins and binds antigens from pathogens to T lymphocytes and this helps in triggering the appropriate immune response to attack of parasites in the body. Some MHC genes may produce a diversity of antigens in a population and individuals posses a unique bunch of genes and the MHC represent the immune system and immune responses quite directly so the genetic effects of population fragmentation are studied. Certain MHC genes evolve in response to selective pressure from pathogens and tend to affect the social behavior of animals as well. Some of the issues that will be discussed here would relate to the nature of MHC, the underlying structural and functional attributes, the early history of MHC, the class I, II, and III and variations or differentiation within manifestation of MHC so that evolutionary processes and mechanisms of parasitic reactions, adaptation and selection could be explained. The MHC has been characterized at the molecular level for many years and the population diversity of MHC molecules is quite large as for some MHC loci, over 100 different alleles have been identified (Parham and Ohta 1996). For polymorphism in MHC, the importance of mutation,

The Coffee Company Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

The Coffee Company Report - Essay Example Out of the 5 running stores, two are not able to generate any profit and the managers believe that this is because of the locations of the stores. One of the partners suggested consulting a marketing research firm however, the other partners think of it as a costly endeavor. The concept of using GIS technology for combining the business information with the demographic data for assessing the proper location for the stores is also being considered by the business partners. However, balancing the financial issues with the strategic planning problem is a complex process for the firm which urged the partners to cancel the bespoke software development and other IT projects of The Coffee Company.  Ã‚   Based on the given case, the partners of The Coffee Company have selected two options for generating their profit earning process. The first option is to focus on the relocation of the two stores that are not operating in a profitable manner and the second option is to improve the customer service process of the concerned stores for increasing the volume of customer footfalls. In the words of Reid and Hinkley (2006), the location of a business house has a major influence on the operational and strategic decision-making process of a firm. Newby (2009) specified that factors such as consumer convenience, the presence of target consumers, market competition, transpiration for procurement of resources, demography and cultural background can the help the business in assessing the contribution of a location for business sustainability.  Changing the location of the stores for The Coffee Company has to be conducted based on proper information that would allow them to make quick decisions and implement them.  

Debate the proposition that employers are more concerned with controlling employee behaviour than they are with eliciting employee commitment. Essay Example for Free

Debate the proposition that employers are more concerned with controlling employee behaviour than they are with eliciting employee commitment. Essay It can be said that employers have become increasingly concentrated towards controlling employee’s behaviour than endeavouring to attain employee commitment in organisations. Control can be defined as â€Å"To exercise authoritative or dominating influence over† . However this can become controversial when applied to working with people therefore as a countermeasure commitment has been introduced to even the balance. This can be defined as â€Å"a combination of commitment to the organisation and its values and a willingness to help out colleagues (organisational citizenship). It goes beyond job satisfaction and is not simply motivation. Engagement is something the employee has to offer: it cannot be ‘required’ as part of the employment contract. Commitment is therefore intrinsic to the individual employee and difficult to measure what exactly makes each one motivated therefore control should be utilised to a greater extent. This shift to controlling employees rather than endeavouring to ensure that they are committed has led to a majority of staff feeling undervalued and therefore unable to achieve their potential in the workplace. A study has shown that controlling employees has led to a drop in productivity due to the fact that a 26% or three quarters of staff members, feel that they are being manipulated rather than being utilised to their potential . Therefore, this illustrates that companies are now shifting towards compliance from their employees to follow Manager’s directives in lieu of commitment that is attained through the use of de-centralised management e.g. Matrix structures. However if companies therefore wish to therefore use centralised management the possibility for employee commitment is therefore limited. Matrix structures do have the effect of improving commitment as they include no hierarchy and equal standing by those in them however they must be monitored to ensure that they are still effective and not misused  for their less stringent management style and that some structures favoured over others . McGregor’s (1960) XY theory is a method to illustrate the management style of an organisation to determine whether it favours control or commitment from its workforce. Employee behaviour which is heavily controlled follows the pattern of Theory X, as opposed to the Theory Y which is intended to generate employee commitment. Theory X favours that managers exercise control and directed to achieve the organisational objectives with little flexibility for employees to use their initiative, whereas Theory Y believes that commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievements . Theory X managers have somewhat receded however employees are still being controlled under the assumption that businesses are using commitment methods for example flexible working practises and appraisals which will be discussed later. Commitment is intrinsic which requires more resources, however control is external and can be done more effectively than commitment. See appendix one for a model of McGregor’s theory. To control employee behaviour a number of measures have been utilised in the office environment that have enabled them to be observed by managers and recorded in order to monitor them while they are on the premises. By installing these devices it motivates the employee to work as they are constantly being monitored and therefore provides a sense of motivation for them to work as signs of slacking/unauthorised absence are recorded and used as evidence to support that fact . CCTV has evolved in recent years for businesses. Before, it was used as a common security device for the building, now, it has become a performance tool for mangers in which as a further measure to control their staff. This is done by highlighting those employees who are slacking to ensuring that proper procedure is being adhered to while on the premises. . This constant monitoring can have the effect of de-moralising employees as their every move in the workplace is being scrutinised. Job commitment however relegates CCTV to its previous function of security as management entrust employees to do their jobs, but now that CCTV has been turned in towards employees it is evident that control measures are being used instead of trying to create commitment. Yet CCTV is but one way of retaining control of staff in the workplace. For  instance, in McDonalds through the use of CCTV cameras, productivity has increased through unobtrusive CCTV coverage of workers and customers . An additional method which a business can use technology to monitor employees is the practice of electronic â€Å"clocking in† systems. These devices have been implemented in large businesses that employ a multitude of staff in which individual movement of employees can be difficult to trace. A business which has done this exactly this is Poundworld in which employees are electronically scanned into at the start of a shift and have the consequence of deduced salary if this process has been neglected . As a method of control, these devices can monitor exactly when an employee has begun their shift or when they have returned from their breaks etc. to ensure that they begin work at the proper time. This also ensures proper records can be maintained should any discrepancy arise regarding timekeeping. However this monitoring of movement may hamper employee commitment as they are constantly being recorded while on the premises for timekeeping plus they can feel dis-trusted by management as they are being constantly monitored for when they started their shift. Employers have minutely contributed to employee commitment with the use of Job Design which has been utilised to effect in certain companies such as Microsoft who use elements like job share to encourage employees in their roles Job Design is when the duties and the role of an employees’ position have been analysed and decided by management before they are employed or amending parts of an employees’ position while they are employed. Job Design permits an input from employees into their role of the organisation as they collaborate with management in which their position is defined. A further example of stimulating commitment with job design is when employees and employers discuss characteristics of the position that would suit the employee’s capabilities which in turn increases their motivation as the employers are permitting staff an input into designing their responsibilities in the job. However, employers have the opportunity to use job design to influence control of over their staff with the use techniques such as job expansion and job rotation with allow them to amend or add additional workload to their job which may not be to the employees benefit.  Furthermore, an employer has the ability to change the job design of staff to suit their requirements over employees depending on the situation without any input from employees. By way of strategically/tactically controlling their staff, management are employing the use of Management by Objectives for all members of staff to analyse if targets or goals are being met. This can be defined as â€Å"A methods of management whereby managers and employees define goals for each department, project, and person and use them to monitor subsequent performance† . Controlling behaviour is being used here as management are attaining the utmost effectiveness from a particular member of staff or individual department as their desired goals are measured against their actual goals and analyse if they have been accomplished. However commitment is being given to the staff/department as the decisions to how they achieve their stated goals has been de-centralised for them to decide. As technology has increased to such an extent, a business can take advantage of employing staff that do not have to work in the office environment through the use of flexible working contracts and providing them with equipment to work off-site. These contracts enable a business to offer their employees who are unable to travel or who have other commitment so actively continue working but in the confines of their own home or on the go by the use of a laptop or mobile phones. As employees are away from the office, a main disadvantage is that their working pattern cannot be monitored to ensure that they are actually fulfilling their tasks. As controlling behaviour has become more prevalent to management, software has be embedded to the technology issued to these homeworkers e.g. tracker and keystroke logs to monitor the use of laptops and phones during the day. For example, Freedom Direct, a holiday company offers such flexible contracts and issues those involved with hardware embedded with this surveillance software to safeguard against slacking while away from the eyes of management . However some companies now prefer to control their employees from one central organisation. For example Yahoo managing director has decided to ban employees from using home working to â€Å"build on corporate culture† however this has damaged commitment as many employees have been demoralised by this  decision that may affect their future in the company. . Furthermore, to bolster the claim of controlling employees, this ban on flexible practises was instigated after an investigation of employee logs showed it fell below the standard expected for their employees and therefore cut this form of employment from the organisation. . This therefore illustrates that electronic devices provided by organisation are monitored to ensure that duties are conducted. Employee commitment is therefore given an opportunity by senior management by permitting a group of employees to work away from the office on these contracts who might not have the opportunity to do so. This increases motivation and job satisfaction to the company as they would not lose any valuable staff plus have the ability to monitor these employees away from the office with the tracker software to monitor their actions during the working day. Control is again utilised as these employees are monitored no less than their counterparts in the office and are monitored with the identical software. Control has been favoured in organisations as those with the authority to make decisions in their department must to be held to account for those decisions should they prove to be incorrect. Accountability can be defined as â€Å"the fact that those people with authority and responsibility are subject to reporting and justifying task outcomes to those above them in the chain of command† . By having a clear and define line of authority from the managing director to the clerk, it is possible to identify who should be held to account and therefore justify their decisions should they prove them to be incorrect or disastrous. This can be de-moralising as these targets are not negotiable and therefore must be achieve which adds an element of stress. Managers often therefore are hesitant to issue instructions in which they know are difficult to achieve, yet this can bolster commitment within the company as employees, if informed, that these tasks are of some difficulty may strive to attain them to receive the department recognition for doing so. This therefore increases motivation as well as assists in team-building for the department as they are united in a common goal . Employee behaviour can be controlled by the use of annual appraisals of departments. This is the discussion in which an employee and manager decide  on the objectives and the action necessary to achieve them for the coming year. Appraisals are a two way discussion in which the employee states what they wish to achieve for the year and the manager offers guidance to do so, however this is again a method for which control even though employees perceive it as being a method for commitment. The employee may see appraisals as a method in which they are in control of what they want to achieve and not what the business wants them to do. This is an opportunity for managers to input targets or goals which the employee agrees on without knowing the magnitude of the task, however they must achieve as it has been stated on the appraisal document and could lead to a poor appraisal the subsequent year. Managers can use these to implement control over employees in which to dispel rewards to the employee thus motivates them to achieve their objectives. The threat of disciplinary action for repeated failure to attain objectives set out at appraisals is a sure way to coerce commitment in the workplace as employees will strive to achieve those objectives set at appraisals. Employers have the ability to produce commitment while still using control methods by the use of a health work/life balance. This can be defined as â€Å"concept that supports the efforts of employees to split their time and energy between work and the other important aspects of their lives† . While managers are allowing an employee to split their time between a professional and a private life they can still use methods such as monitoring social media to ensure that no derogatory remarks have been made against the organisation known as reputation management. It has been reported that 80% of a company’s workforce use social media sites in one way or another therefore the scope for badmouthing a company has increased. To combat this possibility 60% of selected businesses have proposed to implement software that would detect this . It is imperative that a business conform to the laws which dictate when an employee’s professional life ends and when a personal one begins as not to intrude. Having a healthy balance between personal and professional life enhances commitment to the organisation due to employees recognising that their business does not own them permanently and are permitted a life outside the office however are unobtrusively monitored to an extent. In order for senior management to exercise control over employees while they are in the workplace, management have re-employed the use of a well-defined and structured hierarchy in organisations in which they can delegate the operational control of the business to managers or first level employees who have a greater understand of how operations of the department are conducted. Middle management positions such as Assistant Managers for departments have returned to businesses due to the fact that the employees on this level support change to departments which may not be popular as well as focusing on the different strategies which have been set by the company . By re-introducing levels of management that may have been de-layered previously, companies are therefore increasing their Vertical differentiation to establish a clear line of authority in departments. This may be advantageous for commitment in departments that have a copious amount of staff as problems can be easily rectified, yet they can be seen as another level of management in which the business has established to ensure their corporate strategies are met irrespective to employee requirements. In order to control employees’ behaviour, businesses have invested in training and development programs to educate their workforce with various methods such as induction training through to university courses. Induction training is a period in which a new employee to the business is given training preceding their start in the business. This provides an opportunity for the member of staff to become aware of the procedures, policies and workplace culture that a business has. In order to train potential or existing staff some businesses have adopted a system of internal in-house training schemes that have been adapted especially to fit different purposes. Businesses such as McDonalds which have established educational institutes for potential staff to undertake for promotion or re-training or other reasons which would see those who graduate attain a recognised qualification . However due to their size and expense they are restricted to large highly profitable businesses. A purpose of these schools is to instruct that person on what is expected of them while in employment and how to undertake different duties, however these methods can be categorised as a method of control as these courses are pre-designed so that employees  should conform only to those that are taught as they expect them to be correct. Commitment can be fostered from this as employees may be more motivated and satisfied in their position as they have been trained to a degree so that they are competent in their role in the business and provide a sense of a good working environment to potential employees, plus as this is a recognised qualification this can be presented as part of an application as a symbol that they have enrolled and passed a course specifically designed to train members of staff. The drawback of control becomes the advantages of using commitment and should influence a business to implement commitment measures For example; Pfeffers’ model of high performance factors is heavily influenced as commitment measures that managers should consider to bolster the motivation of their workforce. However these are disguised as a further method of control as to attain these factors the workforce must demonstrate they are a viable working entity. The factors that constitute this model are Team working and de-centralised management, High pay and incentive, Employee Security, Extensive training and development, Narrow status differentials and Careful recruitment and selection. Cultural control is a method that managers can use to â€Å"define specific patterns of behaviour within a professional environment†. This behaviour has already been stipulated by the management of how they wish the workforce to conform and therefore expect these patterns to re-enforce organisational culture. A method in which an employee can become accustomed to the social norms of a workplace culture is through induction training. Therefore the accompanying member of staff would acquaint the new employee of the social norms that have been adopted by staff which they will conform to. This method of control is an example of how management quickly adapt staff to the methods of the workforce that have already been repeated for other staff. A company that would be perceived as having a poor corporate culture would be BP. In the wake of the oil spill in 2007 in which an inquiry was found to ascertain that intense cost cutting and efficiency measures demoralised the workforce therefore affected practises which precipitated the disaster through negligence of corporate culture. A final method in which businesses can control their workforce is through the monitoring of social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter. The organisation will monitor their employees’ posts on these sites to ascertain they are behaving in an according manner or post any derogatory statements regarding the business or its staff. This is a method of control as staff are being monitored while they are on the premises as well as off therefore this encroaches into their personal life affecting the work/life balance. It has been reported that 60% of businesses by 2015 will have some monitor in place in order to track their workforce on social media sites in order to protect the business’s reputation or the brand they are selling . An example of a business that has used this is Proskauer Rose in which staff have it written into their contract of employment that they will be monitored on social media sites. Therefore to conclude, it would appear that mangers controlling employee behaviour has become more prevalent that endeavouring to attain employee commitment in organisations. This could be the case as controlling employees has become cheaper that resorting to measures to attain employee commitment as well as ensuring their effectiveness in the workplace as well as out of it . However there should be an even balance between control and commitment from managers to create a suitable working environment for employees as they would not prefer to working in a hostile business which treats them as a tool rather than one which treats them as a valuable resource. Using control methods such as technology and monitoring ensures that staff are adhering to policy set out in their contract. References Always Watching . (2010). Benefits of CCTV for your Business. Retrieved Feburary 19, 2013, from Always Watching.com: http://www.always-watching.com/benefits-of-cctv-for-your-business.html Anviz, Newsdesk. (2011, August). Anviz’s VF30 fingerprint time clock on Channel 4†²s ‘Undercover Boss’. Retrieved March 4, 2013, from Security Newsdesk: http://www.securitynewsdesk.com/2011/08/10/anvizs-vf30-fingerprint-time-clock-on-channel-4s-undercover-boss/ Bednarz, T. (2013, January 15). Empowered Organisations Develop Employee Commitment. Retrieved Feburary 18, 2013, from Leaders to Leader: http://blog.majoriumbusinesspress.com/2013/01/15/empowered-organizations-develop-employee-commitment/ Broome, I. (2009, July 20). How CCTV can help improve your productivity. Retrieved Feburary 10, 2013, from IanBroome.com: http://iainbroome.com/how-cctv-can-help-improve-your-productivity Business Dictionary. (2013). What is Job Design. Retrieved March 1, 2013, from Business Dictionary: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/job-design.html Chertkow, M. (2012, August 24). CCTV is not just about security anymore its performance management and productivity tool, too . Retrieved Feburary 19, 2013, from IT web Techforum: http://www.itweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_contentview=articleid=57970 CIPD. (2012, July). Employee Engagement. Retrieved March 7, 2013, from CIPD: http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/factsheets/employee-engagement.aspx#link_0 CIPD. (2012, April). Job Design. Retrieved Feburary 21, 2013, from CIPD: http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/factsheets/job-design.aspx Clark, D. (2010, October 3). Theory X and Theory Y. Retrieved Feburary 25, 2013, from Officebroker.com: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/xy.html Cross, S. (2013). Examples of Cultural Controls in Organizational Structure. Retrieved March 7, 2013, from Chron: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/examples-cultural-controls-organizational-structure-13425.html Daft, R. (2008). The New Era of Management. Mason: Thomson South-Western. Daft, R Kendrick, M Vershinina N . (2010). Management. Hampshire: South Western Cengage Learning #. Dunn, C. (2012, November 29). More Employers Creating Social Media Polices for the Workplace. Retrieved March 19 , 2013, from Corporate Counsel: http://www.law.com/corporatecounsel/PubArticleCC.jsp? id=1202579655072More_Employers_Creating_Social_Media_Policies_for_the_Workplaceslreturn=20130219093207 Farquhar, C. (1998). Middle Managers are Back: How Companies Have Come to Value Their Middle Managers. Farquhar, C. (1998). Middle Managers are Back. How Companies Have Come to Value Their Middle Managers. Free Dictionary. (2013). Control. Retrieved Feburary 19, 2013, from The Free Dictionary: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/control Heathfield, S. (2013). Work-life Balance. Retrieved Feburary 26, 2013, from About.com : http://humanresources.about.com/od/glossaryw/g/balance.htm Herscher, P. (2010, May 10). From BP and Wall Street: Corporate Culture Impacts Performance . Retrieved March 11, 2013, from Huffingston Post Businesses: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/penny-herscher/from-bp-and-wall-st-corpo_b_563211.html Improve. (2012, July 27). How far can Employers go in Controlling Employee Behaviour Off the Job . Retrieved March 8, 2013, from Improve: http://www.improve.com/How-far-can-Employers-go-in-Controlling-Employee-Behavior-Off-the-Job/4404# Johnson. (2013). Disadvantages of a Strong Matrix Organizational Structure. Retrieved Feburary 21, 2013, from Chron: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/disadvantages-strong-matrix-organizational-structure-59207.html Lipman, V. (2013, January 13). Why Are So Many Employees Disengaged? Retrieved Feburary 18, 2013, from Forbes: http://www.forbes.com/sites/victorlipman/2013/01/18/why-are-so-many-employees-disengaged/ Management Study Guide . (2008). Performance Appraisal and Performance Management. Retrieved Feburary 25, 2013, from Management Study Guide: http://www.managementstudyguide.com/performance-appraisal-and-performance-management.htm Maximize Social Media . (2012). Rapid Rise in Monitoring Employee Use of Social Media. Retrieved March 4, 2013, from Maximise, Social Media: http://maximizesocialmedia.com/social-media-management-rapid-rise-in-monitoring-employee-use-of-social-media Mighty Students. (2010). Elements of Job Design. Retrieved April 2, 2013, from Mighty Students: http://www.mightystudents.com/essay/Elements.Job.Design.68700 Peacock, L. (2010, November 25). McDonalds launches foundation degree for staff. Retrieved March 4, 2013, from TheTelegraph: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/8157900/McDonalds-launches-foundation-degree-for-staff.html Reed, S. (2010, July 6). How to Manage Employee Behaviour. Retrieved Feburary 28, 2013, from Ezine Articles: http://ezinearticles.com/?How-to-Manage-Employee-Behaviourid=4613259 Reference for Business. (2013). Management Levels. Retrieved Feburary 19 , 2013, from Reference for Business, Encyclopedia of Business 2nd Edition: http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Log-Mar/Management-Levels.html Reporter. (2013, Feburary 27). Melissa Mayer imposed Yahoo! work from home ban after spying on employee log ins. Retrieved March 7, 2013, from Daily Mail: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2287148/I-wouldnt-consider-feminist-s ays-Marissa-Mayer-revealed-imposed-Yahoo-work-home-ban-spying-employee-log-ins.html Smith, T. (2011, May 9). Accountability in Business Management. Retrieved Feburary 21, 2013, from The New Dawn: http://www.thenewdawnliberia.com/index.php?option=com_contentview=articleid=3430:accountability-in-business-managementcatid=36:investmentItemid=62 Sullivan, I. (2012, July 2). Sixty percent of companies will monitor employee social media use by 2015. Retrieved March 19, 2013, from The Wall: http://wallblog.co.uk/2012/07/02/sixty-percent-of-companies-will-monitor-employee-social-media-use-by-2015/ Twentyman, J. (2007). Keeping tabs (Staff monitoring). Twentyman, J. (2007, October 22). Staff monitoring: keeping tabs on homeworkers. Retrieved Feburary 21, 2013, from Personnel Today: http://www.personneltoday.com/articles/22/10/2007/42869/staff-monitoring-keeping-tabs-on-homeworkers.htm UK Business Information. (2013). The Benefits of in-house training. Retrieved April 2, 2013, from UK Business Information: http://www.business-information-uk.com/in-house-training.html Verheul, I. (2003). Commitment or control? Weiss, T. (2013, Feburary 27). Yahoo’s Mayer Slated Over ‘Foolish’ Home Working Ban. Retrieved Feburary 28, 2013 , from Tech Week Europe: http://www.techweekeurope.co.uk/news/yahoo-home-working-ban-108776 Wu, J. (2009). McDonaldisation and the Labour Process:Impacts and Resistance. Asian Social Science , 106. Bibliography Broome, I. (2009, July 20). How CCTV can help improve your productivity. Retrieved Feburary 10, 2013, from IanBroome.com: http://iainbroome.com/how-cctv-can-help-improve-your-productivity Business Dictionary. (2013). What is Job Design. Retrieved March 1, 2013, from Business Dictionary: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/job-design.html Improve. (2012, July 27). How far can Employers go in Controlling Employee Behaviour Off the Job . Retrieved March 8, 2013, from Improve: http://www.improve.com/How-far-can-Employers-go-in-Controlling-Employee-Behav  ior-Off-the-Job/4404# Reed, S. (2010, July 6). How to Manage Employee Behaviour. Retrieved Feburary 28, 2013, from Ezine Articles: http://ezinearticles.com/?How-to-Manage-Employee-Behaviourid=4613259 Reference for Business. (2013). Management Levels. Retrieved Feburary 19 , 2013, from Reference for Business, Encyclopedia of Business 2nd Edition: http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Log-Mar/Management-Levels.html Twentyman, J. (2007). Keeping tabs (Staff monitoring). Verheul, I. (2003). Commitment or control? Appendix list 1. 1. Working on feedback: Read the feedback on your assignment carefully, then re-read the piece of work to see the areas that the feedback refers to. You might use a highlighter pen to cross-reference the feedback to your work, or to draw attention to corrections and suggestions. What has your tutor written (key points) What do you understand this to mean? 1. Good introduction, underpinned by theory 2. Critical and analytical throughout 3. Good reference base 4. Contextualised into subject 5. Good analysis 6. Must use references properly 7. Used references and examples to illustrate that points made are utilised in business. 8. Good research base 1. A well designed introduction that has been bolstered with the use of business theory to support the argument. 2. By being argumentative on both sides (control and commitment) it shows that there has been research done and concluded that one was more viable than the other. 3. A diverse range of sources has been used to collate examples e.g. journals books internet

Features of Internet Banking

Features of Internet Banking 2.0 Overview Based on previous chapter, this study examines the factor influencing undergraduate student adoption of internet banking. In order to gain a clearer better understanding, it is meaningful to explore the related literature regarding adoption internet banking. Section 2.1 will discuss about the basic of electronic banking. Section 2.2 understanding about internet banking, section 2.3 conception of internet banking, section 2.4 traditional banking versus internet banking, section 2.5 will discuss the characteristics of internet banking, section 2.6 Technology Acceptance Model, section 2.7 in Malaysias internet banking and section 2.8 factor influencing undergraduate adoption of internet banking. 2.1 Basic of Electronic Banking The term of electronic banking is almost generic in its nature and therefore it is mostly used without any further definition or explanation. Electronic banking is not equal to the term of internet banking although the latter is most widespread type of it. Electronic banking is a construct, which consists of several distribution channels. Electronic banking is a bigger platform than just banking via internet. Although, most general type of electronic banking in our times is banking through internet or internet banking. Electronic banking this term can defines in many ways. Most simple form is mean the provision of information or service via a bank to its customers by a computer, television, telephone, or mobile phone. Electronic banking includes several traditional services like telephone banking, credit cards, debit cards, ATMs. Burr (1996), for example, describe of an electronic connection between bank and customers in order to manage, prepare and control financial transactions. Internet banking also allows their customer access bank accounts for doing their banking transactions. At another progression level internet banking called transactional online banking, because of it involves the provision of facilities such as transfer of funds, view account balances and transaction, buying financial products or service online. Now a day internet is the main channel of electronic banking. Electronic banking is also known as electronic fund transfer (FET) and basically is simple the use of electronic means to transfer fund directly from one account to another account.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In addition, electronic banking is said to have three different mean of delivery: PC, telephone and the internet. From Daniel (1999) there, he already introduces four types of channels for electronic banking: PC banking, internet banking, managed network and also TV-based banking.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most important is to know that internet banking is dissimilar from PC Home banking. The apparent difference is that internet banking is browser-based, whereas PC Home banking requires customers to install the software package assigned by the bank on their PC. Furthermore, PC Home banking allows customers to do their banking services only on PCs that have been installed the assigned software package.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Telephone banking, TV-based banking and managed network do not play such role in banking today. However, in the future delivery platform is expected to shift from wired internet connection to wireless mobile technologies. 2.2 Internet banking Internet banking defines as banking services such as transfer of fund, loan application, account balance inquiry, fixed deposit placement and view transaction histories provided by bank via internet. (Pikkarainen, Pikkarainen, Karjaluoto, and Pahnila, 2004, p.224) defines internet banking as an internet portal, through which customers can use different kind of banking services ranging from bill payment to making investment. Now a day, banking services really give many types of service through internet; it is also another stage for banking industry goes to higher levels. Beside that cash withdrawal, internet banking gives undergraduate customers many types of banking transaction can be done through at the click of mouse only. Undergraduate student using mouse to click already can be done several banking transaction compare to traditional banking. To be sure, use of new alternative channel for distribution of financial services has become a competitive necessity instead of just a way to achieve competitive advantage with the advent of globalization and fiercer competition. All banks using internet as an additional channel or a bank using only the internet as the delivery channel are now equal footing to offer their banking services on the internet and to complete for customer around the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Internet banking has the advantage for bank to maintain competition, to save costs, to enhance mass customization, marketing and communication activities, and to maintain and attract consumer. The primary advantage of internet banking is to save time and cost. Indicated that internet banking allows the consumer easier access to their bank accounts with lower services changes and also time saving. Moreover, showed that internet banking had a low transaction cost and a high speed of service when compared to other banking services. 2.3 Conception of internet banking   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Internet banking is conducting banking transaction via internet, such as fund transfer, account balance inquiry, history transaction, loan application and so forth. In terms of banks ideals are as below: Provided with ICT equipment such as notebooks and internet connection, the user can access anywhere anytime. (e.g. home, hotspots zone, workplace and so forth) It required basic software from PC such as Internet explorer which allows users to sign-in into their e-banking services from the websites. All transactions done through website will store in banker server from internet. Banking services are ready can anytime. Users can print the bank statement or check the transaction history or observe the incoming fund anytime. Meanwhile we should alert that the differences among internet banking and PC Home banking. Internet banking is through browser-based, but PC Home Banking needed to install a software package assigned by the bank. 2.4 Internet banking versus Traditional banking   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many years ago, when a user wanted to open a bank account, he or she must be presented to bank branches. And, the business transaction, automatic teller machine (ATMs) and customer services also provided by face to face basis which so called traditional banking. Traditional banking offer real life people to people interaction. Fixed schedule, inconvenient locations and limited financial products offer are caused some of users drawback from traditional banks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For internet banking, the easiest way to open a saving account or internet checking is by linking to an existing account. Business transactions can be carrying out by just a click. Without any verbal communications and no long queue at the counter, the users still can manage any accounts by staying at home. Internet banking is more convenience; 24 hours in 7days of banking service and flexibility are the main advantages of internet banking. It can provide the undergraduate students on all banking services convenience anywhere. Thus, internet banking is probably our benefits. 2.5 Characteristics of internet banking Internet banking is beneficial for both the provider and the customer. Stated that rationales of banks usage of the internet banking technology from the bank perspective are mainly to saving cost. Banks use internet banking is because it is the cheapest delivery channel for banking products. This kind of services can save time and money of the bank with an added benefit of minimizing the likelihood of committing errors by bank tellers. Internet banking offer services to their customers to use at their conveniences. Mostly, undergraduate students are like conveniences, easy and fast, somehow internet banking usage for undergraduate still not so much. From the figure is show that age 16-24 is lower compare to age 25 onward. While younger peoples continue to make up the greater part of online users, due to internet banking users greater proportion of new internet banker is age 55. (Karjaluoto et al. 2002, p.261) argued that banking is no longer bounce to time and geography. Customers over the world have relatively easy access to their account, 24 hours per day and seven days a week. This author argue that, with internet banking services, customers branch banking took too much time and effort are now able to make the transaction using click of their fingers. Competition is yet another important rationale with increasing competitive pressures from existing firms and new entrants in the market. At the same time, internet banking strategy has been an interesting way to retain existing customers and attract more new customers. The use of internet banking become an alternative channel has also been allowing banks to target different demographic segment more effectively. (Robinson, 2000) believe that supply of internet banking services enable bank to establish and extend relationship with customers. Benefit for the users are numerous as well and include convenience of the services, lower cost of transaction and more frequent monitoring of accounts among others.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The basic characteristics of internet banking are: To help bank perspective to save costs. To save time and money. To minimize the likelihood committing errors. To fulfill undergraduate students convenience. To lower the transaction costs. 2.6 Technology Acceptance Model   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), are introduced by Davis 1989. Goal of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is determinants of able of defining user behavior across a wide range of end-user computing technologies and computer acceptance. A key intent of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) provides a basic of trace the affect of external factor on attitudes and intention.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) which has been extend and applied to different information technologies and end users. In TAM, Davis proposes that the influence of other variables on technology acceptance in mediated by two individuals belief: perceived ease of use (PEU) and perceived useful (PU). Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), suggest that a prospective users overall feelings or attitudes toward using a given technology based on system or procedures represent major determinants to use the system. Technology acceptance model (TAM) proposes that attitudes predict intention, and intention predict behavior. Adoption behavior is determined by the intention to use a particular system and intention is determined by attitude, which in turn is determined by the perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of the system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Perceived usefulness is defined as using a particular system will improve on job performance. Perceived ease of use defined as using a particular system will be free of effort. Offer instance of external variable may affect an individuals perceived usefulness. Two computer programs are given, which are equally to use and will produce better quality or improve users productivity will have a higher affect on an individuals perceived usefulness ,regardless of ease of use equality. 2.7 In Malaysia   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All banking services and financial services in Malaysia is regulated by Central Bank; Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM). June 2000, internet banking was introduces in Malaysia when Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM) allow local banks to offer internet banking service in Malaysia. This facility was extended to foreign owned banks during 2002. Until Jan 2008, there were 23 banks offering internet banking in addition to their traditional services. Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM) provided Minimum Guidelines on the Provision of Internet Banking Services by Licensed Banking Institution (MGIB) 2000 after the BCBS recommendations. Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM) defines internet banking as product and services offered by licensed institution on the internet through access devices, including personal computer and other intelligent devices.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Banking institution are legal entities licensed under the Banking and Financial Institution Act (BAFIA) 1989. The aim for Minimum Guideline on the Provision of Internet Banking Service by Licensed Banking Institution (MGIB) is main purpose is to protect both consumer and the bank themselves from the risk associated with such banking. 2.8 Factor influence Internet Banking 2.8.1 Security   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to the main factors that determining the decision of undergraduate students using internet banking is security. (ABF, 1997) shows that undergraduate student and banker will keep away from internet banking are security concern. More undergraduate students and households will be willing to conduct their banking transaction via the internet, unless improvement of security. US banks believe that security concern is main barrier for internet banking is concluding by the banks. Main reason for slow growth of internet banking were discover by the security concern, this is conducted by study in Australia. New innovation of the level of the security or risk associated will influence the acceptance and adoption. Where internet banking has been long set up, the main significant factors that will slow down the progress of this new innovation is the main concern for security over the financial transaction via internet. Most of peoples including undergraduate student, they will first considered secure and safe of the internet banking.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Initially, as an undergraduate student they will think whether this banking transaction through internet isnt secure enough for doing the transaction. Lack of security and reliability of transaction via internet is the main reason for they agree to refuse to use the internet banking. Security and privacy issues are concern by individual because they are still reluctant to use.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (Sathye 1999), concern about the security and safety of the banking transaction via the internet, Australian consumer are reject to adopt internet banking. Due to also found out that substantial reason that influence internet banking in Malaysia security anxiety. Security failure at a banking institution may cause large losses could generate lack of confidence in banking innovation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tan and Teo (2000) establish that risk will be the main factor, Ndubisi et.al. (2004) also agree the importance of adequate of security in order to raise the confidence of public to utilize the system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Banks ability is to manage internet-based transaction through undergraduates confidence. Poor security is inadequate to protect customers personal data. Computer privacy and security issues are those undergraduate students concern about. Internet banking service must be more responsive security requirements only can attract more and more undergraduate users. 2.8.2 Trust   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (Mayer, Davis Schoorman, 1995) Trust is defined as a willingness to be susceptible to the action of the others. Define trust as an necessary components in a relationship especially whenever risk and uncertainty exist. Say that when an individual trust a person, will expect in that person will not take advantage of reliance upon him or her.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Context of internet banking, trust has been suggested to be the one of the barrier that will hinder individuals from adopt the technology say by. Security issues will indirectly have further influence undergraduate students trust level of internet banking.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (Moorman et.al, 1992) Defined trust as a willingness to rely on an exchange partner in whom one has confidence and perception of confidence in the exchange partners reliability and integrity say by. These both directly underline in the exchange partners reliability in the conception of trust. Normally undergraduate student do not trust Internet Technology for these three reasons, first is security of the system, second is distrust of the provider and third is reliability of internet service.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Trust in the internet increase long term internet usage in the adoption decision. Trust will give undergraduate student guarantee safety for using internet banking. Undergraduate student attitude toward internet banking system may be related with trust on judgment on the security and privacy also. One of the important reasons is lack of trust make undergraduate student do not using internet banking, so must improve application security and privacy only can give undergraduate student confidence for using internet banking. Trust is an antecedent of perceived usefulness, also perceived ease of use is an antecedent of trust. Trust has a directly and indirectly effect on behavior intention to use. Determinants of perceived usefulness is trust, particularly in an online environment, part of guarantee that undergraduate student will sense the expected usefulness from the website. Trust will have a positive effect on perceived usefulness, while trust allow undergraduate to ensure they gain the expected useful services. 2.8.3 Privacy protection Defined privacy as the protection of personal information so it is not reveal to or used by others. Undergraduate normally aware of the privacy issues, including whether personal information would be used by the banks or third parties to market new services to them. Privacy has been an important factor in the choice not to use internet banking. Effective privacy protection laws will consider the internet environment will help to build trust and confidence. To improve privacy issues, first banks must provide consumer reassurance and information, ensure consumer information would not disclose to other or third parties. Banks need to improve the application security and privacy and ensure bank information security and privacy. To assist consumer in development secure internet banking practice and risk management procedures. 2.8.4 Attitude Define attitude as person positive and negative feeling about internet banking adoption. Age will affect the attitude of individual toward internet banking. Attitude toward adoption and use of internet banking might give undergraduate student a positively image assuming security of internet transaction is safety enough. Positive technology attitude enable faster diffusion of internet based services.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Attitude build received its first serious attention from Darwin 1872. Darwin defined attitudes as a physical expression of an emotion or motor concept. According to defined attitudes as an individuals positive and negative feeling to perform a target behavior. defined as a persons general feeling of favorableness and unfavorable for that recommends that different dimension of attitudinal belief toward innovation appraise by five perceived attributes. Five attributes are relative advantage, complexity, compatibility, observability, and trialability. At the same time behavior intention to use internet banking is highly related to attitude. Personal banking experiences will affect attitude toward internet banking.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Internet to users banking needs to relate to the advantage the mount up to the user of the technology. show that relative advantage is very important factor to influence adoption of new innovation. Commonly, perceived relative advantage is positively connected to the rate of adoption. According to defined complexity as degree to which an innovation is measured comparatively is hard to understand, found and use it to negatively affect the adoption of internet. Shows that complexity is view the accurate opposite of ease of use, that have been establish to directly crash the adoption of internet. Stated that, system requires less operational effort and technical skills will more probable to adopt it. Found that an innovation was more possible to be adopting when it was compatible with individuals value system and job responsibilities. Privacy is an important view to performing internet banking and therefore observing individual performing internet banking is not only hard also hard to unacceptable. found out observation and description analysis of undergraduate internet banking users, the problem such as slowness and so forth. Stated that trialability got the potential adopter of new technology, and who will allow to test it, whether will comfortable to be more likely to adopt it. Attitudes combine with these five innovations, these five innovations will directly and indirectly affect undergraduate student to adopt internet banking as well. 2.8.5 Perceived ease of use   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Defined perceived ease of use as degree to which person believes that adopt internet banking would be free of effort. Define ease of use as one of important characteristics from undergraduates perspective for adoption of innovation services. A study has been conducted by a company called Cyber Dialogue has revealed that as many as 3.1 million USA adult have discontinued their use of internet banking because of they feel the services was too complicated or were dissatisfied with the level of customer services. Propose that it is essential for the internet to be ease of use to increase the adoption rate of internet banking. Function of internet banking ease of use, it will be attract more undergraduate students adopt it. Now a day, undergraduate student really got the potential to help grow the rate of adopt internet banking rate. To help success implementation internet banking, banks must make sure that the service of the system are simple, ease and of sufficiently high quality to confirm undergraduate level satisfaction in order to maintain undergraduate usage.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Show that general computer self efficiency considerably influence the perceived ease of use at all the time, while the usability of system will directly influence undergraduate users perception after they have experience with the system 2.8.6 Awareness   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Explanation of Awareness can be the acceptance and continued to use the service, product or idea. show that undergraduate go via a series of process in knowledge, decision, conviction and confirmation before they are ready to adopt new service or products. The adoption or rejection of an internet banking start when the undergraduate becomes aware of the internet banking. Consumer must become aware of new service or new product is emphasizing by. Normally when come out one new services or new product consumer will not dare to try or buy it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lack of awareness is the most common and important factor that negatively influence adoption of internet banking stated by. This is situation; we are able to argue that if the undergraduate student not adopting internet banking service due to the unawareness of the availability of such a service. Lack of awareness of internet banking and its benefit, here some recommendation suggest by. To attract more undergraduate student attention to internet services through a better marketing, let undergraduate better understand the process. Try to inform the undergraduate student about the features, advantage and the benefit of internet banking, for undergraduate student they normally are more prefer everythings conveniences. Reduce the undergraduate concern about technology and support.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lack of internet awareness is due to the internet banking services are still unaccepted. It is believe that undergraduate are not fully confidence with using internet banking. Greater awareness could show them the benefit and also encourage them to adopt internet banking services provided from banker. Awareness of internet banking services is necessary in the early adoption stages, as internet banking services is consider new in Malaysia. 2.8.7 Cost and Accessibility   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stated that cost as a characteristics of internet banking. Price or cost is one of the important factors that will affect the undergraduate adoption of innovation. Two types of costs are involved in the internet banking, first is bank charge and cost, second is the normal cost that associated with the internet activities. Before adopting internet banking, undergraduate will concern about the cost, to help in increase the rate of adoption of internet banking. Banks must lower the transaction cost, to help undergraduate student save costs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If want to attract more undergraduate student to use new technologies, then first the technologies must be reasonable priced relative to alternatives. All price charged must be reasonable, with a reasonable price undergraduate just willing to adopt internet banking or else the acceptance of the new technology may not be viable from the point of view of the undergraduate. Being on the internet has allowed banks to cut costs on transaction, by the way banks also can improve their image on the market.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Point out that internet banking is very beneficial to undergraduate because of the savings in cots, time and space it offers; and also it is quick feedback to all the complaints. It also can build undergraduate identification of internet banking to emphasize the benefit of internet banking services; such as low cost service, conveniences, information availability and time saving. Saving transaction cost can improve customer service, increasing market reach and reducing costs are now basic expectation of internet banking services.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Availability of access to computer or internet is a precondition for adoption of internet banking. Show that the more widespread the access to computer or internet then the greater possibility of use of internet banking adoption. found that lack of access to computer as one of the reason for slow adoption of internet banking.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Show that accessibility to computer or internet will affect the decision to adopt internet banking. Relationship between the accessibility and internet banking is important and the outcome show that accessibility has a positively relationship with internet banking adoption intentions.

Interrupts and interrupt applications

Interrupts and interrupt applications 8086 Interrupts And Interrupt Applications Introduction: Microprocessors are computers built on single IC. There can be more ICs also used for this. Most microprocessors allow normal program execution to be interrupted by some external signal or by a special instruction in the program. In response to an interrupt the microprocessor stops executing its current program and calls a procedure which sevices the interrupt. An IRET instruction at the end of the interrupt service procedure returns execution to the interrupted program. 8086 Interrupts And Interrupt Responses: An 8086 interrupt can come from any one of three sources. One source is an external signal applied to the non-maskable interrupt (NMI) input pin or to the interrupt input pin. An interrupt caused by a signal    applied to one of these inputs is referred to as a hardware interrupt. A second source of an interrupt is execution of the interrupt instruction. This is referred to as a software interrupt. The third source of an interrupt is some error condition produced in the 8086 by the execution of an instruction. An example of this is the divide by zero interrupt. If you attempt to divide an operand by zero, the 8086 will automatically interrupt the currently executing program. At the end of each instruction cycle, the 8086 checks to see if any interrupts have been requested. If an interrupt has been requested, the 8086 responds to the interrupt by stepping through the following series of major actions: 1) It decrements the stack pointer by 2 and pushes the flag register on the stack. 2) It disables the 8086 INTR interrupt input by clearing the interrupt flag in the flag register. 3) It resets the trap flag in the flag register. 4) It decrements the stack pointer by 2 and pushes the current code segment register contents on the stack. 5) It decrements the stack pointer again by 2 and pushes the current instruction pointer contents on the stack. 8086 Interrupt Types: The preceding sections used the type 0 interrupts an example of how the 8086 interrupts function. It has hardware caused NMI interrupt, the software interrupts produced by the INT instruction, and the hardware interrupt produced by applying a signal to the INTR input pin. DIVIDE-BY-ZERO INTERRUPT-TYPE 0: The 8086 will automatically do a type 0 interrupt if the result of a DIV operation or an IDIV operation is too large to fit in the destination register. For   a type 0 interrupt, the 8086 pushes the flag register on the stack, resets IF and TF and pushes the return addresses on the stack. SINGLE STEP INTERRUPT-TYPE 1: The use of single step feature found in some monitor programs and debugger programs. When you tell a system to single step, it will execute one instruction and stop. If they are correct we can tell a system to single step, it will execute one instruction and stop. We can then examine the contents of registers and memory locations. In other words, when in single step mode a system will stop after it executes each instruction and wait for further direction from you. The 8086 trap flag and type 1 interrupt response make it quite easy to implement a single step feature direction. NONMASKABLE INTERRUPT-TYPE 2: The 8086 will automatically do a type 2 interrupt response when it receives a low to high transition on its NMI pin. When it does a type 2 interrupt, the 8086 will push the flags on the stack, reset TF and IF, and push the CS value and the IP value for the next instruction on the stack. It will then get the CS value for the start of the type 2 interrupt service procedure from address 0000AH and the IP value for the start of the procedure from address 00008H. BREAKPOINT INTERRUPT-TYPE 3: The type 3 interrupt is produced by execution of the INT3 instruction. The main use of the type 3 interrupt is to implement a breakpoint function in a system. When we insert a breakpoint, the system executes the instructions up to the breakpoint and then goes to the breakpoint procedure. Unlike the single step which stops execution after each instruction, the breakpoint feature executes all the instructions up to the inserted breakpoint and then stops execution. OVERFLOW INTERRUPT-TYPE4: The 8086 overflow flag will be set if the signed result of an arithmetic operation on two signed numbers is too large to be represented in the destination register or memory location. For example, if you add the 8 bit signed number 01101100 and the 8 bit signed number 010111101, the result will be 10111101. This would be the correct result if we were adding unsigned binary numbers, but it is not the correct signed result. SOFTWARE INTERRUPTS-TYPE O THROUGH 255: The 8086 INT instruction can be used to cause the 8086 to do any one of the 256 possible interrupt types. The desired interrupt type is specified as part of the instruction. The instruction INT32, for example will cause the 8086 to do a type 32 interrupt response. The 8086 will push the flag register on the stack, reset TF and IF, and push the CS and IP values of the next instruction on the stack. INTR INTERRUPTS-TYPES 0 THROUGH 255: The 8086 INTR input allows some external signal to interrupt execution of a program. Unlike the NMI input, however, INTR can be masked so that it cannot cause an interrupt. If the interrupt flag is cleared, then the INTR input is disabled. IF can be cleared at any time with CLEAR instruction. PRIORITY OF 8086 INTERRUPTS: If two or more interrupts occur at the same time   then the highest priority interrupt will be serviced first, and then the next highest priority interrupt will be serviced. As a example suppose that the INTR input is enabled, the 8086 receives an INTR signal during the execution of a divide instruction, and the divide operation produces a divide by zero interrupt. Since the internal interrupts-such as divide error, INT, and INTO have higher priority than INTR the 8086 will do a divide error interrupt response first. Hardware Interrupt Applications: Simple Interrupt Data Input: One of the most common uses of interrupts is to relieve a CPU of the burden of polling. To refresh your memory polling works as follows. The strobe or data ready signal from some external device is connected to an input port line on the microcomputer. The microcomputer uses a program loop to read and test this port line over and over until the data ready signal is found to be asserted. The microcomputer then exits the polling loop and reads in the data from the external device. The disadvantage of polled input or output is that while the microcomputer is polling the strobe or data ready signal, it cannot easily be doing other tasks. I n this case the data ready or strobe signal is connected to an interrupt input on the microcomputer. The microcomputer then goes about doing its other tasks until it is interrupted by a data ready signal from the external device. An interrupt service procedure can read in or send out the desired data in a few microseconds and return execution to the int errupted program. The input and output operation then uses only a small percentage of the microprocessors time. Counting Applications: As a simple example of the use of an interrupt input for counting , suppose that we are using an 8086 to control a printed circuit board making machine in our computerized electronics factory. Further suppose that we want to detect each finished board as it comes out of the machine and to keep a count with the number of boards fed in. This way we can determine if any boards were lost in the machine. To do this count on an interrupt basis, all we have to do is to detect when a board passes out of the machine and send an interrupt signal to an interrupt input on the 8086. The interrupt service procedure for that input can simply increment the board count stored in a named memory location. To detect a board coming out of the machine, we use an infrared LED, a photoresistor and two conditioning gates. The LED is positioned over the track where the boards come out, and the photoresistor is positioned below the track. When no board is between the LED and the photoresistor, the light from t he LED will strike the photoresistor and turn it on. The collector of the photoresistor will then be low, as will the NMI input on the 8086. When a board passes between the LED and photoresistor, the light will not reach the photoresistor and turn it on. The collector of the photoresistor will then be low, as will the NMI input on the 8086. Timing Applications: In this it is shown that how delay loop could be used to set the time between microcomputer operations. In   the example there, we used a delay loop to take in data samples at 1 ms intervals. The obvious disadvantage of a delay loop is that while the microcomputer is stuck in the delay loop, it cannot easily be doing other useful work. In many cases a delay loop would be a waste of the microcomputers valuable time, so we use an interrupt approach. Suppose for example, that in our 8086 controlled printed circuit board making machine we need to check the ph of a solution approximately every 4 min. If we used a delay loop to count off the 4 min, either the 8086 wouldnt be able to do much else or what points in the program to go check the ph. 8254 Software-Programmable Timer/Counter: Because of many tasks that they can be used for in microcomputer systems, programmable timer/counters are very important for you to learn about. As you read through following sections, pay particular attention to the applications of this device in systems and the general procedures for initializing a programmable device such as 8254. Basic 8253 And 8254 Operation: The intel 8253 and 8254 each contain three 16 bit counters which can be programmed to operate in several different modes. The major differences are as follows: 1) The maximum input clock frequency for the 8253 is 2.6 MHz, the maximum clock frequency for the 8254 is 8MHz. 2) The 8254 has a read back feature which allows you to latch the count in all the counters and the status of the counter at any point. The 8253 does not have this read back feature. The big advantage of these counters, however, is that you can load a count in them, start them and stop them with instructions in your program. Such a device is said to be software programmable. 8259a Priority Interrupt Controller: In a small system, for example, we might read ASCII characters in from a keyboard on an interrupt basis; count interrupts from timer to produce a real time clock of second, minutes and hours and detect several emergency or job done conditions on an interrupt basis. Each of these interrupt applications requires a separate interrupt input. If we are working with an 8086 , we have problem here because the 8086 has only two interrupt inputs, NMI and INTR. If we save NMI for a power failure interrupt, this leaves only one input for all the other applications. For applications where we have interrupts from multiple sources, we use an external device called a priority interrupt controller. Software Interrupt Applications: The software interrupt instruction INT N can be used to test any type of interrupt procedure. For example to test a type 64 interrupt procedure without the need for external hardware, we can execute the instruction INT 64. Another important use of software interrupts is to call Basic Input Output System, or BIOS, procedures in an IBM PC-type computer. These procedures in the system ROMS perform specific input or output functions, such as reading a character from the keyboard, writing some characters to the CRT, or reading some information from a disk. To call one of these procedures, you load any required parameters in some specified registers and execute an INT N instruction. N in this case is the interrupt type which vectors to the desired procedure. Suppose that, as part of an assembly language program that you are writing to run on an IBM PC type computer, you want to send some characters to the printer. The header for the INT 17H procedure from the IBM PC BIOS listing. The DX, AH, and AL registers are used to pass the required parameters to the procedure. The procedure is used for two different operations: initializing the printer port and sending a character to the printer. The operation performe d by the procedure is determined by the number passed to the procedure in the AH register. AH=1 means initialize the printer port, AH=0 means print the characters in AL, and AH=2 means read the printer status and returned in AH. If an attempt to print a character was not successful for some reason, such as the printer not being turned on, not being selected, or being busy, 01 is returned in AH. The main advantage of calling procedures with software interrupts is that you dont need to worry about the absolute address where the procedure actually resides or about trying to link the procedure into your program. So at last every microcomputer system uses a variety of interrupts and this is all about 8086 interrupts and applications. Conclusion: Microprocessors are computers built on single IC. There can be more ICs also used for this. Most microprocessors allow normal program execution to be interrupted by some external signal or by a special instruction in the program. In response to an interrupt the microprocessor stops executing its current program and calls a procedure which sevices the interrupt. An IRET instruction at the end of the interrupt service procedure returns execution to the interrupted program. An 8086 interrupt can come from any one of three sources. One source is an external signal applied to the non-maskable interrupt (NMI) input pin or to the interrupt input pin. An interrupt caused by a signal  Ã‚   applied to one of these inputs is referred to as a hardware interrupt. A second source of an interrupt is execution of the interrupt instruction. This is referred to as a   software interrupt. The third source of an interrupt is some error condition produced in the 8086 by the execution of an instructio n. An example of this is the divide by zero interrupt. If you attempt to divide an operand by zero, the 8086 will automatically interrupt the currently executing program. At the end of each instruction cycle, the 8086 checks to see if any interrupts have been requested. One of the most common uses of interrupts is to relieve a CPU of the burden of polling. To refresh your memory polling works as follows. The strobe or data ready signal from some external device is connected to an input port line on the microcomputer. The microcomputer uses a program loop to read and test this port line over and over until the data ready signal is found to be asserted. The software interrupt instruction INT N can be used to test any type of interrupt procedure. For example to test a type 64 interrupt procedure without the need for external hardware, we can execute the instruction INT 64. So at last we conclude that every microcomputer system uses a variety of interrupts and this is all about 8086 int errupts and applications. References: 1) DOUGLAS V.HALL, â€Å"microprocessors and interfacing† TaMcGRaw-Hill edition 2) www.wikipedia.com 3) www.google.com